Book Review: A Theory of Justice by John Rawls

This comprehensive review is based entirely on the provided excerpts from the Revised Edition of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls.

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Book Review: A Theory of Justice by John Rawls

John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice (first published in 1971, with a revised edition incorporating significant improvements) is a landmark achievement in political and moral philosophy. Rawls sets out to construct a comprehensive theory of social justice, offering a "systematic alternative" to the utilitarian tradition that had long dominated Anglo-Saxon political thought. The result is a rigorous and detailed defense of "justice as fairness," designed as a philosophical foundation for constitutional democracy.

Overview of Main Themes, Arguments, and Structure

The central theme of the work is social justice, whose primary subject is the basic structure of society. This structure encompasses the major social institutions (like the political constitution and principal economic arrangements) and dictates the distribution of fundamental rights, duties, and advantages. Rawls famously declares that justice is the "first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought".

Rawls develops his argument by generalizing the traditional concept of the social contract (associated with Locke, Rousseau, and Kant) to a "higher level of abstraction". He posits a hypothetical decision scenario, the Original Position, where free and rational persons choose the principles of justice. Crucially, this choice occurs behind a Veil of Ignorance, ensuring that no one knows their social status, natural abilities, or conception of the good. This device "ensures that no one is advantaged or disadvantaged in the choice of principles by the outcome of natural chance or the contingency of social circumstances". The idea is that the resulting principles are the outcome of a fair agreement, explaining the name "justice as fairness".

Rawls argues that the parties in the Original Position would select Two Principles of Justice in lexical (serial) order:

1. The Equal Basic Liberties Principle: "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others".
2. The Difference Principle and Fair Equality of Opportunity: Social and economic inequalities must be arranged so they are both (a) "reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage" (interpreted as maximizing the expectations of the least advantaged—the Difference Principle) and (b) attached to offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.

The lexical priority means that basic liberties cannot be infringed upon or compromised for the sake of greater social or economic advantages. This priority is a crucial element that distinguishes justice as fairness from utilitarianism, which might permit "the violation of the liberty of a few" if it resulted in "the greater good shared by many". Rawls fundamentally argues that utilitarianism does not take seriously the distinction between persons.

The book is structured into three parts: Part One: Theory (establishing the core concepts, the two principles, and the Original Position); Part Two: Institutions (applying the principles to constitutional frameworks, political economy, and duties/obligations, including the famous discussion of civil disobedience); and Part Three: Ends (developing the necessary theory of the good to support the premises, exploring moral psychology, and arguing for the congruence of the right and the good).

Analysis of Style, Tone, and Perspective

Rawls adopts a highly systematic and theoretical style, aiming to unify "the ideas expressed in the papers I have written over the past dozen years or so". The tone is rigorously analytical, characterized by philosophical precision and careful terminology (e.g., distinguishing between the concept of justice and conceptions of justice, or between the duty of justice and the obligation of fairness).

Rawls's perspective is fundamentally Kantian. He sees the Original Position as a "procedural interpretation of Kant’s conception of autonomy and the categorical imperative". Acting justly is understood as acting from principles one would consent to as a "free and equal rational being". The theory uses "simplifying devices" and assumes certain general facts (including psychological principles) to create a framework that yields definite results, striving for a "moral geometry".

A notable aspect of the author’s perspective is his commitment to intellectual honesty, as demonstrated in the preface to the revised edition. Rawls notes that criticisms, such as those made by H. L. A. Hart regarding the account of liberty, prompted "significant improvements" to the text. He also corrects what he terms a "serious mistake in the argument for the priority of liberty" and indicates that certain arguments (like those for the Difference Principle) are "less evident" than others.

Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses

The central strength of A Theory of Justice is its success in presenting a "workable and systematic moral conception to oppose" utilitarianism and intuitionism, which Rawls found deficient. By placing the priority of liberty first, the theory establishes that the rights secured by justice "are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interests". This secures "the basic liberties of a democratic regime" most firmly.

A major internal critical insight is encapsulated in Rawls’s response to utilitarianism, which he argues applies the principle of rational choice for one person to society as a whole, thereby "conflating all persons into one". The contract doctrine, conversely, takes "seriously the plurality and distinctness of individuals".

Rawls himself points out several initial weaknesses addressed in the revised edition:

• The original account of primary goods was ambiguous, needing clarification that they are characterized by what "persons need in their status as free and equal citizens" rather than solely psychological facts.
• The initial formulation of the argument for the two principles was structurally improved to better separate the strong case for equal liberties from the case for the difference principle.
• He notes he would handle the presentation of the institutional framework differently by distinguishing more "sharply the idea of a property-owning democracy... from the idea of a welfare state".

Another challenge the book tackles explicitly is the reliance on intuition. Rawls acknowledges that philosophical justification often leads back to intuition when weighing competing principles (the difficulty of "intuitionism"). His solution, however, is to employ the concept of reflective equilibrium—a state where our principles and our considered judgments of justice are brought into "mutual support" and coherence. By providing rigorous constructive criteria, Rawls argues the theory reduces the dependence on unguided intuition.

Connections to Broader Contexts

A Theory of Justice serves as a profound intervention in academic discourse, positioning itself as the culmination of the social contract tradition while actively refuting the utilitarian school. It integrates concerns from various disciplines:

• Political Economy: Rawls applies his principles directly to economic arrangements, policies, and background institutions, discussing ideas like economic efficiency, public goods, and the appropriate function of the transfer branch in guaranteeing a social minimum.
• Legal/Political Theory: It provides a moral framework for constitutional law, discussing the necessity of the Rule of Law (formal justice) and scrutinizing core democratic institutions like majority rule. The detailed discussion of civil disobedience within a nearly just society is particularly significant, defining it as a "public, nonviolent, conscientious yet political act contrary to law" aimed at appealing to the community's sense of justice.
• Moral Psychology: Part Three connects the choice of political principles to the social nature of humankind, arguing that a sense of justice is a natural psychological development in a well-ordered society. The stability of the just society relies on the belief that possessing an effective sense of justice belongs to a person’s own good (congruence).

In a social and cultural context, the theory provides an ideal—an "Archimedean point"—from which to critique existing societal arrangements. The principle of fair opportunity, for example, challenges the notion that distributive shares should be determined by the "natural lottery" of talents or social contingencies. Rawls argues that his framework provides a basis for the worth of liberty to the least advantaged, demonstrating that the resulting inequalities are acceptable because they enhance the capacity of the less fortunate to achieve their aims.

Overall Contribution and Significance

The book's overall contribution is monumental: it successfully revived and systematized contract theory to deliver a robust, deontological account of liberal egalitarianism. It provides a moral basis for democratic society, emphasizing that the inviolability of each person is "founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override".

By defining the just society (ideal theory) and providing the tools to analyze deviations (nonideal theory), Rawls furnishes a rigorous and comprehensive standard. The final chapters solidify this by arguing that the just principles support our moral self-worth: "The unity of the self is essentially related to the rightness of the principles of justice" . Furthermore, the theory accommodates the "values of community" through the idea of a well-ordered society as a "social union of social unions," where the successful operation of just institutions becomes a shared final end.

Conclusion: Target Audience

A Theory of Justice is essential reading for individuals engaging with the deepest questions of political legitimacy and moral foundation.

It would most benefit academic readers—especially those in political philosophy, ethics, law, and social theory—due to its systematic, abstract nature, detailed engagement with complex ideas (like utilitarian calculus and maximin reasoning), and foundational role in modern discourse. It serves as a necessary benchmark for understanding contemporary theories of rights, equality, and distribution.

Beyond the academy, the book is highly valuable for thoughtful citizens, policy makers, and legal scholars in constitutional democracies who seek a definitive moral justification for civil liberties, distributive systems, and public institutions. Its clarity on issues like the justification of civil disobedience (in a nearly just regime) provides crucial guidance for applying political principles in moments of social conflict. However, readers must approach the text with patience, as Rawls acknowledges it is a "long book" requiring close attention, particularly to core concepts like the Original Position and the two principles.