Epistemology: A Detailed and Analytical Book Review

Epistemology: A Detailed and Analytical Book Review

Robert Audi's Epistemology: A Contemporary Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge (first published in 1998) is widely recognized as a major contribution to the field, lauded as a "state-of-the-art introduction" by leading figures. The book provides a lucid, comprehensive, and well-structured survey of the theory of knowledge and justification.

I. Main Themes, Author’s Purpose, and Intellectual Context

The central concern of epistemology, as conceived by Audi, is answering how we know what we do, what justifies us in believing what we do, and what standards of evidence we should employ in seeking truths.

Author’s Purpose and Scope: Audi, an internationally recognized leading author in epistemology, designed the book primarily for intermediate and advanced undergraduates and starting graduate students, though it is also valuable for professional colleagues. It is intended for readers who have completed at least one introductory philosophy course. The primary aim is instructional: to educate readers in the major philosophical problems, positions, and arguments in contemporary epistemology, providing tools necessary to understand both classical and modern texts. While he seeks to introduce the field neutrally, Audi also sympathetically considers a variety of positions while defending his own preferred solutions. The overall approach is to "do epistemology rather than talk about it".

Main Themes and Arguments: The book’s comprehensive scope is structured around three main conceptual phases:

1. Sources: Identifying the origins of belief, justification, and knowledge (perception, memory, consciousness, reason, testimony).
2. Structure and Development: Exploring how knowledge is extended (inference) and organized (foundationalism vs. coherentism).
3. Nature and Scope: Analyzing what knowledge is (the Gettier problem, internalism vs. externalism) and evaluating its reach into specific domains (science, ethics, religion, and skepticism).

Audi consistently champions the concept of justification as equally important as knowledge itself. A critical thread running through the later chapters is the distinction between Internalism (justification is internally accessible, e.g., via introspection or reflection) and Externalism (knowledge is often externally grounded in reliability or causal processes not accessible to the subject).

Intellectual Context and Relevance: Published toward the end of the 20th century, Epistemology sits within a contemporary philosophical landscape dominated by post-Gettier analyses of knowledge, reliability theories, and fierce debates over the structure of justification (e.g., between foundationalists and coherentists). Audi is informed by the tradition (mentioning Plato, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Mill, etc.) but structures the discussion around current analytical arguments. The intellectual context involves responding to skepticism, which Audi places last, arguing that skepticism should not distract non-professional readers from conceptual questions concerning knowledge itself. Its clear articulation of these enduring and complex debates ensures its continued relevance today.

II. Chapter-by-Chapter Breakdown of Key Ideas

The book is organized into three parts across ten chapters, reflecting a "natural progression" through the field:

Part One: Sources of Justification, Knowledge, and Truth

• Chapter 1: Perception: Defines perception largely as a causal relation involving the perceiver, the object, sensory experience, and the causal link. It details the modes of perception (simple, objectual/to be, and propositional/that). Audi argues against sense-datum theories, favoring direct realist views like the Theory of Appearing or the Adverbial Theory, which account for illusion and hallucination without positing inner mental objects. Perception is established as a basic source of belief, justification, and knowledge.
• Chapter 2: Memory: Compares memory to perception, noting its role in preserving information acquired through the senses. Audi differentiates the function of memory, noting it is a basic source of justification (as memorial impressions can be justified even if false) but mainly a preservative source of knowledge, as knowledge cannot be gained from memory unless it was acquired previously in another way (e.g., perception).
• Chapter 3: Consciousness: Explores introspection as a source of self-knowledge. Audi argues that introspective consciousness is a basic source of justification and knowledge, analogous to perception. However, he challenges the strong doctrine of privileged access (the theses of infallibility and omniscience), suggesting attentive introspective beliefs are merely normally true and justified, not absolutely infallible.
• Chapter 4: Reason: Focuses on truths knowable a priori (independently of experience) through conceptual understanding, centered on the notion of self-evidence. Audi contrasts the Classical View (Rationalism, endorsing synthetic a priori truths) with Empiricism (Mill) and Conventionalism. He argues that reason, as a capacity of understanding, is a basic and active source of justification and knowledge, enabling us to know truths that hold in any circumstances.
• Chapter 5: Testimony: Posited as the primary social source of justification and knowledge. Audi distinguishes between the Inferentialist View and the view that testimony produces non-inferential beliefs that are merely filtered by background knowledge. A key argument is that testimony is not a basic source of knowledge or belief because it is operationally dependent on perception (to hear or read the testimony). It functions primarily to transmit knowledge (requiring the attester to know) but can generate justification (requiring the recipient to be credible).

Part Two: The Structure and Growth of Justification and Knowledge

• Chapter 6: Inference and the Extension of Knowledge: Explains that inference extends and transmits justification and knowledge, but is not a basic source itself, as it relies on premises that must already be justified or known. Audi details how knowledge/justification transmit across both deductive (requiring validity) and inductive inferences (requiring strength, but with potential for diminution of justification).
• Chapter 7: The Architecture of Knowledge: Addresses the Epistemic Regress Problem. Audi concludes that foundational beliefs, or basic beliefs directly anchored in experience or reason, are necessary if knowledge is to occur. He argues for Moderate Foundationalism, a view that accepts the fallibility and defeasibility of foundational beliefs and incorporates a significant, albeit non-basic, role for coherence. He critiques Holistic Coherentism for struggling with the "isolation problem"—explaining why a coherent system of beliefs should correspond to truth.

Part Three: The Nature and Scope of Justification and Knowledge

• Chapter 8: The Analysis of Knowledge: Focuses on the question "What is knowledge?". After showing the inadequacy of the traditional Justified True Belief (JTB) analysis, Audi explores alternatives, including Naturalistic Accounts (Causal and Reliability theories). He discusses cases that challenge the necessity of justification for knowledge (e.g., "natural knowledge" in the idiot savant or clairvoyance). This leads to the crucial dichotomy between Internalism (preferable for justification, which is accessible to the subject) and Externalism (preferable for knowledge, which requires reliable, objective grounding). He proposes that knowledge is "true belief based in the right way on the right kind of ground".
• Chapter 9: Scientific, Moral, and Religious Knowledge: Examines the scope of knowledge in three major domains. Scientific knowledge is characterized by fallibilism and is often merely approximate knowledge or knowledge of approximations, achieved through methods like inference to the best explanation. Moral knowledge is defensible against relativism and noncognitivism, grounding itself either a priori (Intuitionism/Kantianism) or empirically (Utilitarianism). Religious knowledge is assessed by contrasting Evidentialism with Experientialism (the possibility of direct, non-inferential knowledge of God). Audi argues that rationality is a weaker, more attainable status than justification for beliefs in these domains.
• Chapter 10: Skepticism: Reserved for the final comprehensive discussion. Audi addresses radical doubts concerning direct and inferential knowledge, including the Problem of Induction and the Problem of Other Minds. He systematically analyzes and argues against core skeptical principles (e.g., the Infallibility Principle and the Certainty Principle). He aims for a rebuttal of skepticism—showing the skeptical arguments do not establish that we lack knowledge—rather than an outright refutation (showing skepticism is false). He concludes that the commonsense view that we possess vast knowledge is rationally resistible but is certainly not defeated by these core skeptical arguments.

III. Author’s Style, Clarity, and Use of Evidence

Audi's text is praised by reviewers for its exemplary clarity and structure. He is described as a "master expositor" whose writing is "lucid and highly readable". The style is accessible, clear, and stimulating, striving to be "simple and concrete" without sacrificing philosophical rigor.

Clarity and Structure: The organizational structure of moving from sources to structure to scope is highly effective, leading the reader in a "natural progression". Audi meticulously explains complex concepts, providing definitions or explications for most major epistemological terms, marked by boldface in the index for easy reference.

Use of Evidence: Audi draws evidence from thought experiments, philosophical traditions, and common-sense scenarios (e.g., the field before him, the hallucinating Macbeth, and the sweepstakes case) to illustrate intricate distinctions, such as between situational justification and belief justification, or between knowledge and justification (Chapter 8). He considers diverse positions fairly and sympathetically before presenting his favored solutions.

IV. Comparison with Other Works and Contribution

Epistemology is noted as being among the "best and most comprehensive introductions to epistemology". It is distinct in its ambition to be a systematic, contemporary introduction informed by tradition, rather than merely a commentary on literature.

Comparison with Genre: As an introduction designed to bridge introductory philosophy with higher-level coursework, the book comprehensively covers crucial debates (foundationalism, coherentism, internalism, externalism) typical of the genre but integrates them uniquely within Audi's distinct, moderate perspective. Unlike many traditional approaches, Audi postpones the main assessment of skepticism until the final chapter, believing that epistemological concepts are independently interesting and should be understood before the question of their existence is debated fully.

Critical Reflection on Contribution: The book provides a powerful case for a form of Moderate Foundationalism that avoids the dogmatism of earlier Cartesian foundationalism. Its most significant contribution to understanding the subject is the systematic distinction drawn between justification and knowledge, arguing that the former tends toward an internalist understanding (based on subjectively accessible grounds like sensory experience) while the latter demands an externalist framework (based on objective reliability for truth). This dual approach allows Audi to respect the necessity of individual rational responsibility while maintaining the objectivist constraints of truth and reliable connection to reality required for genuine knowledge.

V. Target Readership

The book is an "invaluable resource" for several groups:

• Intermediate and advanced undergraduates and starting graduates will find it comprehensive and accessible, offering a strong foundation in core problems and contemporary theory.
• General readers in epistemology at any level can utilize its clarity and scope.
• Professional colleagues find it of considerable interest.
• Students pursuing collateral reading in the philosophy of mind or reading key historical philosophers (such as Descartes, Hume, Kant, or Mill) will benefit from Audi’s explanations of interconnected concepts like perception, introspection, and moral epistemology.