Philosophy of social science: the philosophical foundations of social thought by Ted Benton and Ian Craib

The provided text is comprised of excerpts from the second edition of a book titled "Philosophy of Social Science" by Ted Benton and Ian Craib, with the preface and commentary written by Benton following Craib's death. The authors primarily address the relationship between philosophy and the social sciences, exploring various theoretical traditions and methodological debates, such as empiricism, positivism, interpretivism, critical theory, feminism, and critical realism. The book serves as an overview of major approaches, examining how social sciences differ from or align with the natural sciences, discussing concepts like ontology, epistemology, and different types of rationality (especially instrumental rationality). It also includes a personal reflection and obituary for co-author Ian Craib, highlighting his contributions to sociological humanism and psychoanalysis.

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This comprehensive book review examines Philosophy of Social Science (Second Edition) by Ted Benton and Ian Craib, a volume in the Traditions in Social Theory series. The book is a product of a long-running dialogue between the authors, originating from a course they taught together over twenty-five years.

Summary of Main Arguments

The central purpose of this study is to address the foundational philosophical questions facing social scientists, particularly: "What are we doing when we attempt to study human social life in a systematic way?". The book is presented as a collection of arguments rather than a source of settled conclusions.

The core intellectual project is to move beyond the traditional, often "sterile and inconclusive" opposition between positivism (the naturalistic orientation) and interpretivism (the hermeneutic approach). The authors argue that a deep understanding of philosophical debates, including those concerning the natural sciences, is indispensable for social sciences. They explore whether social sciences can be studied scientifically, even if not using the same methods as the natural sciences, by drawing on alternative, non-empiricist models of science.

Key arguments advanced across the volume include:

1. The Necessity of Philosophy: Philosophy acts as an "underlabourer" by exposing prejudices and unquestioned assumptions, mapping the field of knowledge, and refining methods. Furthermore, reflective investigation into the social sciences necessitates asking philosophical questions regarding proper methods, objectivity, and the role of values.
2. Critique of Positivism and Empiricism: The study details the basic doctrines of empiricism (the notion that knowledge comes from experience and that science is the highest form of knowledge). It scrutinizes the positivist commitment to extending the empiricist model of natural science to the study of social life (naturalism), finding this approach inherently problematic due to unresolved difficulties in the empiricist view of science itself.
3. The Interpretive Traditions: The book examines approaches that prioritize human consciousness and meaning (reflexivity). These range from instrumental rationality (Weber's focus on practical goals), to rationality as rule-following (Winch/Gadamer, emphasizing culture and language games), and critical rationality (Habermas/Critical Theory, viewing rationality as a critical standard for emancipation).
4. Alternative Approaches: It explores non-positivist approaches that offer new ways to conceptualize science and social reality, including the sociological study of science, Critical Realism (emphasizing an independently existing, stratified reality), Feminist Standpoint Epistemology (linking knowledge claims to social position and gender), and Post-structuralism/Post-modernism (emphasizing discourse, fragmentation, and anti-foundationalism).

Structure and Methodology

The methodology is rooted in philosophical comparison and conceptual analysis, organized around key sub-disciplines: epistemology (theory of knowledge), ontology (theory of what exists), logic, and ethics/moral philosophy.

The book’s structure is notably non-conventional, beginning with three chapters dedicated to the philosophy of natural science and the critics of empiricism before moving into social science proper.

The volume proceeds systematically through various traditions, primarily divided into:

• Part I (Chapters 2–4): Empiricism, Positivism, and Alternatives to Empiricism.
• Part II (Chapters 5–7): Interpretive Approaches (Instrumental, Rule-Following, Critical Rationality).
• Part III (Chapters 8–10): Recent Developments (Critical Realism, Feminism, Post-structuralism).

The division of labor saw Ted Benton primarily responsible for chapters dealing with empiricism, natural science, critical realism, and feminism (Chs. 2, 3, 4, 8, and 9), while Ian Craib focused on interpretive approaches and post-structuralism (Chs. 5, 6, 7, and 10). Both contributed to the introduction and conclusion.

For the Second Edition (2011), published after Ian Craib’s death, Ted Benton added post-scripts to relevant chapters and a substantial new Commentary on Recent Developments (Chapter 12). Benton retained Craib's original chapters unchanged, but introduced his own thoughts where they differed from Craib’s, returning the book closer to the authors’ original intention to emphasize debate.

Unique Contributions and Significance

The book's significance lies in its rigorous mapping of complex intellectual terrain and its dedicated focus on methodological questions arising from within the social sciences.

1. Overcoming Dichotomies: The most significant contribution is the systematic argument that the field is not exhausted by the positivist/interpretivist contrast. By dedicating substantial space to alternatives—especially Critical Realism—the book presents a more nuanced view, suggesting that natural and social sciences share similarities and differences in a sophisticated way.
2. Intellectual Honesty and Reflexivity: The authors explicitly connect philosophical positions to their own "personal intellectual (and political) journeys," discussing their initial commitments to Marxism, and how subsequent movements (black power, gay rights, feminism, the green movement) forced them to deeply revise basic assumptions. This provides an insightful model of scholarly self-reflection for students.
3. The Defense of Philosophy: The book ultimately acts "In Defence of Philosophy," arguing that engaging in philosophical argument is intrinsically valuable, helping to counter the increasing dominance of purely instrumental thinking. Craib’s focus on subjectivity and the "imponderable area of creativity" within individuals provides a deep critique against reductive simplifications.

Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses

The strength of the work is its comprehensiveness and commitment to fairness. It serves effectively as a high-altitude photograph or map of theoretical approaches, suitable for situating various social science disciplines. The pedagogical approach encourages students to participate in arguments and challenge their own positions.

A perceived weakness of the first edition, as noted by a reviewer (Garry Potter 2002), was that the authors were perhaps "too scrupulous in being fair to the various positions," leading to a conventional textbook format rather than emphasizing their own provisional intellectual stances. Ted Benton addressed this in the second edition by making his sympathies more evident in the new commentary, acknowledging the desire for a more "committed" character.

Another challenge noted by Benton is the difficulty of achieving "completeness" in covering the exploding volume of academic literature.

Comparison with Other Related Works

The book positions itself in relation to traditional philosophical models, contrasting the "masterbuilder" view (metaphysics/rationalism) with the "underlabourer" view (empiricism). It is also explicitly presented as a companion to the Themes in Social Theory series.

The comparison of foundational social theorists is integral:

• Positivism vs. Interpretivism: The study systematically contrasts the empiricist, quantitative focus of positivism (exemplified by Durkheim, but not exclusively), with interpretive theories like those of Weber, which focus on subjective meaning (verstehen) and instrumental rationality.
• Marxism/Critical Theory: Critical Rationality (Habermas) is presented as a continuation of the emancipatory project of the Enlightenment, arguing that reason provides a means to judge and critique different forms of life. This tradition offers a theory of ideology, wherein systematic mistakes in understanding the world are rooted in social structure, differentiating it from purely hermeneutic approaches.
• Critical Realism (CR): CR is highlighted as an approach that attempts to combine hermeneutic and structuralist insights. It distinguishes itself by claiming that the social world is "variegated" and stratified, made up of different levels of being, suggesting that "what we see is less than what there is". CR provides a "more sophisticated view" than earlier approaches regarding the similarities and differences between social and natural science.

Key Insights and Takeaways

For researchers, students, and practitioners, the book offers several key takeaways:

• The Problem of Transparency: Social life is not always transparent; philosophical grounding is needed to understand phenomena that actors struggle to grasp. Social scientific concepts must overcome "misleading appearances".
• The Interplay of Causal and Meaning Adequacy: In interpretive work, explanations must meet the criteria of meaning adequacy (being a credible, rational story) and causal adequacy (identifying contributing factors through comparative examination).
• The Inescapability of Values: Values are intrinsically involved in science, even if objectivity is pursued. The debate is not whether values exist, but which values are necessary and supportive of objective knowledge.
• The Importance of Ontology: Researchers are encouraged to reflect on "what kinds of things are there in the world", as the potential for social science to be "scientific" depends fundamentally on what "society" is assumed to be.
• Philosophy as Emancipation: The struggle to understand the world and our connectedness to it is intrinsically valuable for human freedom.

Overall Impact and Relevance

Philosophy of Social Science remains highly relevant by providing a necessary philosophical toolkit for confronting the deep disagreements and special difficulties found within the social sciences. The book’s impact is measured by its success as an influential textbook and its ability to sustain critical debate.

The continued relevance of the work is underscored by the material added in the second edition, which demonstrates the ongoing vitality of the issues discussed. Benton’s later commentary engages critically with subsequent literature, including the strong defense of Peter Winch, new work on post-Marxist discourse theory, and the proliferation of work in the Critical Realist tradition. The book successfully equips readers to appreciate the complexity, subtlety, and paradoxes of the ideas that inform the study of the social world.